The plague is an ancient disease that humanity has battled for over 2000 years
The most notorious pandemic, known as the "Justinian Plague," spread in the 6th century and claimed millions of lives in the Eastern Roman Empire. However, the most devastating outbreak occurred in the 14th century, a period also referred to as the "Black Death." During this time, the disease swept across Europe and Asia, killing nearly 25 million people, which constituted a third of the population of Europe at that time. The plague was extremely contagious and deadly, transmitted through bites from infected fleas and also via airborne droplets in its pneumonic form. Without effective treatment and vaccines, the disease spread panic and chaos, destroying cities and states. The situation only improved at the end of the 19th century with the advent of scientific methods for combating infections.
9 Nevertheless, in the 18th century, the plague remained a highly dangerous infection, consistently resulting in significant population losses. At that time, there were no effective epidemiological measures, so the crowded urban conditions and poor hygiene only facilitated the rapid spread of the disease.
In Ukraine, throughout the 18th century, the epidemic erupted 15 times. Every 8-15 years, a new outbreak was recorded, claiming many lives. Between 1770 and 1772, the plague epidemic reached a significant scale. It arose against the backdrop of the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774. The concentration of large masses of people, inadequate medical resources, and unsanitary conditions contributed to the emergence of the disease on the battlefields. Thus, the plague easily spread from Moldavia and Wallachia to Transylvania and Poland, and from there it crossed into Ukraine.
0 The authorities attempted to respond to the threat of the epidemic. Restrictions were promptly imposed on the entry of foreigners who might have been infected, and the import of goods and movement of transport were limited. However, the plague still penetrated deep into the Russian Empire. The primary factor in its spread was the inability to restrict the movement of troops. Supplies and ammunition were delivered to the army, and from there, wounded soldiers and prisoners of war returned, facilitating the spread of the disease. Gradually, the plague affected the Kyiv, Novorossiysk, and Belgorod provinces, but initially, the threat was met with skepticism in Kyiv. As early as 1729, a quarantine post was established in Vasylkiv, near Kyiv, which became the main one and coordinated six others across Ukraine.
1 The first cases of plague in Kyiv were recorded on September 2, 1770. In Podil, an important trading center of the city, three men involved in transporting ammunition for the army died. The next day, a woman who had received a woolen shawl from them as a gift also died. A commission of doctors, graduates of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, was formed to investigate the situation. Based on the characteristic symptoms—high fever, hallucinations, and ulcers—the diagnosis of plague was made.
2 In April 1771, military doctor Danilo Samoylovych (the founder of the first scientific medical society in Ukraine) joined the commission, whose advice and experience aided in combating the epidemic. However, by the time he participated, significant mistakes had already been made, leading to substantial losses in the city. The disease gradually spread to all districts of Kyiv, with the infection reaching the Old City and Pechersk from Podil. On September 12, the first victims were recorded in the Old City, and on October 19, in Pechersk. All parts of the city suffered from the epidemic, and the number of sick continued to rise.
3 Due to the deteriorating situation, state institutions and educational establishments, including the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy in Podil, were closed. Students returned home, further spreading the infection. In the Sophia Monastery, the disease reached alarming proportions—almost 140 people died here, including 60 monks and 80 attendants. A similar situation was observed in other monasteries, explained by the overcrowding of residents and distrust of doctors' prescriptions. The only monastery not affected by the epidemic remained the St. Michael's Monastery. The monks believed they were protected by a miraculous icon, while doctors attributed it to the fact that the monks did not leave the monastery grounds, creating a sort of vacuum that prevented the disease from entering.
4 Doctors began identifying the infected and those who had come into contact with the sick. The infected were isolated, sent to Trukhaniv Island, and in winter housed in the Kyryliv Monastery. Some patients were allowed to go home. Since no vaccine existed at that time and the experience of combating the plague was limited, the chances of recovery for the sick were virtually nonexistent. Doctors avoided direct contact with the sick and disinfected clothing using smoke and ventilation, which was time-consuming. Items from the homes of the infected were pulled out on ropes using hooks and burned in the yards. Later, soldiers began to perform this work, but the process of eliminating the disease remained slow and ineffective.
5 Residents of Kyiv made various attempts to preserve their belongings. Sometimes they moved the bodies of the deceased from one yard to another to avoid mandatory evacuation and protect their possessions. In other cases, people buried their dead directly on their plots without informing doctors or authorities. Soldiers also appropriated the belongings of the infected to later exchange or sell them. Local authorities did not take the warnings from doctors seriously. As a result, the relaxation of quarantine measures led to a significant increase in the number of victims. In the spring of 1771, the epidemic flared up again in Kyiv, spreading from the village of Pyrohiv and the Pechersk area. Items from the homes of the deceased continued to be sold, further facilitating the spread of the disease. The authorities surrounded Podil, Pechersk, and Old Kyiv with guard posts and restricted the movement of residents. People could leave their areas only with special passes to purchase food. Such measures caused discontent among the population, which demanded freedom of movement and the lifting of the quarantine.
6 The issue of burial became particularly acute. At that time, the deceased were usually buried near city parish churches, except for the cemeteries of Germans and Jews, which were located outside the city. During the epidemic, the authorities organized new burial sites: in Shchekavytsia for Podil, in the Lukianivka area for the Old City, and on the hill near Saperne Pole for Pechersk.
The massive outbreak of the plague was caused by a lack of medical facilities in Kyiv. To address this issue, the Klov Palace, initially intended for receiving officials, was converted into a temporary hospital, where patients were housed in spacious halls. Knowledge about the plague was extremely limited, and there were not enough qualified doctors capable of combating the epidemic. At the same time, the absence of specific actions and the inadequate preparedness of the authorities significantly complicated the fight against the epidemic.
7 The epidemic of 1771 became one of the most devastating in the history of Kyiv. The exact number of victims remains unknown: official data report 20,000 dead, but other estimates suggest that this number could reach 80,000, which was nearly a fifth of the population of the city at that time. The epidemic led to significant changes in urban planning and the social sphere of Kyiv. The disease prompted Kyiv residents to realize the necessity of improving medical services and adopting a more responsible attitude towards health. The epidemic left a deep mark in the memory of the residents, becoming a turning point for the development of medical institutions in the city.
8 During this time, an important role in combating epidemics was played by the Odessa native Volodymyr Havkin—a prominent microbiologist of Jewish descent who developed the first vaccine against the plague in 1896.
9 His path to this achievement was not easy, as he was unable to work in his homeland due to the antisemitism and discrimination prevalent at that time in the Russian Empire. After the onset of pogroms in Odessa in 1881 and the worsening situation for Jews, Havkin decided to leave Russia and went to Paris, where he was able to continue his work in Louis Pasteur's laboratories.
0 In 1892, he created the first effective vaccine against cholera, which he successfully tested on himself. This became the foundation for his further research in the field of bacteriology.
1 In 1896, when an epidemic of plague broke out in India, Havkin moved to Bombay (Mumbai), where he began working on a vaccine for this disease. He used the principle of weakened bacteria, similar to what he had applied during the development of the cholera vaccine. That is, Havkin's vaccine literally adapted the body to mount an immune response against the disease. Although the vaccine was far from perfect, it significantly reduced mortality and the severity of the illness.
2 An important moment in the development of the vaccine was its testing, which Havkin, as with the previous cholera vaccine, conducted on himself. The vaccine proved effective, and soon it began to be used for mass vaccination of the Indian population, later gaining worldwide recognition.
Thus, despite the enormous losses, such catastrophic events spurred society